Proteccionismo comercial como respuesta a la crisis de la globalización en Occidente: Trump y el Brexit
Palabras clave:
Trump, Brexit, proteccionismo, acuerdos comerciales
Resumen
Durante los últimos años se dio un giro significativo hacia el proteccionismo comercial como respuesta a lo que algunos perciben como un evidente descontento provocado por el proceso de globalización. Bajo este planteamiento, el siguiente trabajo se centró en dos de los eventos más emblemáticos que simbolizan esta tendencia: la presidencia de Donald J. Trump (2017-2021) en Estados Unidos y el referéndum del Brexit en el Reino Unido. Trump marcó un punto de inflexión en la política comercial de Estados Unidos, al promover un enfoque de America First que incluía la imposición de aranceles y la renegociación de acuerdos comerciales internacionales. Por otro lado, el referéndum del Brexit en 2016 y la posterior salida del Reino Unido de la Unión Europea en 2020 representaron un caso paradigmático de proteccionismo a nivel regional. En ese sentido, se buscó explorar cómo el Brexit afectó las relaciones comerciales entre el Reino Unido y la UE, así como su posición en la escena internacional. Bajo esa línea, se discutieron las implicaciones más amplias de estas dos dinámicas en el contexto de la crisis de la globalización: ¿representan estos movimientos un desafío sostenible al orden económico global existente o son respuestas temporales a problemas específicos?, ¿qué lecciones se pueden extraer de estas experiencias para la futura gestión de los conflictos comerciales?
Descargas
La descarga de datos todavía no está disponible.
Citas
Abbott, M. (2019, March 1). The UK would like to export more to Australia and New Zealand after Brexit. LSE Brexit Blog. https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/brexit/2019/03/01/what-are-the-prospects-for-uk-trade-with-australia-and-new-zealand/
Akgemci, E. (2022). Authoritarian Populism as a Response to Crisis: The Case of Brazil. Uluslararası İlişkiler / International Relations, 19(74), 37–51. https://www.jstor.org/stable/27130875
Algan, Y., Guriev, S., Papaionnau, E., & Passari, E. (2017). The European Trust Crisis and the Rise of Populism. Brookings Papers on Economic Activity, 309–382. http://www.jstor.org/stable/90019460
Allison, G.T., & Halperin, M. H. (1972). Bureaucratic politics: A paradigm and some policy implications. World Politics, 24, 40–79.
Anton, M. (2017). America and the Liberal International Order. American Affairs. https://americanaffairsjournal.org/2017/02/america-liberal-international-order/
Art, R. J. (1973). Bureaucratic politics and American foreign policy: A critique. Policy Sciences, 4(4), 468–469.
Balbon, N. (2023). Building Peace, the Feminist Foreign Policy Way. Good Practices.
Banco Mundial. (2023). Vista general del país: Reino Unido. https://wits.worldbank.org/countrysnapshot/es/GBR/textview
BBC News Mundo (26 de marzo de 2023). Por qué la globalización está en la cuerda floja (y qué puede venir). https://www.bbc.com/mundo/noticias-64945852
BBC News Mundo. (27 de febrero de 2023). Reino Unido y la UE llegan a un acuerdo sobre la frontera de Irlanda del Norte: por qué era el "último gran obstáculo" para sellar el Brexit. https://www.bbc.com/mundo/noticias-internacional-64784523
Boulding, K. (1959). National images and international systems. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 3(2), 120–131.
Bremmer, I. (2018). The Winners of Trump’s Foreign Policy: Year One. Horizons: Journal of International Relations and Sustainable Development, 10, 96–103. https://www.jstor.org/stable/48573480
Burt, R. (2017). Trump and Europe. The National Interest, 147, 45–48. https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557363
Center for American Progress. (2023, October 1). President Biden’s Worker-Centered Trade Policy: A Conversation With Ambassador Katherine Tai. https://www.americanprogress.org/events/president-bidens-worker-centered-trade-policy-a-conversation-with-ambassador-katherine-tai/
Colantone, I., & Stanig, P. (2018). Global Competition and Brexit. American Political Science Review, 112(2), 201-218. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003055417000685
Corbett, S. (2016). The Social Consequences of Brexit for the UK and Europe: Euroscepticism, Populism, Nationalism, and Societal Division. The International Journal of Social Quality, 6(1), 11–31. http://www.jstor.org/stable/26179355
Cox, M. (2017). The Rise of Populism and the Crisis of Globalisation: Brexit, Trump and Beyond. Irish Studies in International Affairs, 28, 9–17. https://doi.org/10.3318/isia.2017.28.12
Crozier, M. (1964). The Bureaucratic Phenomenon. University of Chicago Press.
de Búrca, G. (2018). How British was the Brexit vote? In B. Martill & U. Staiger (Eds.), Brexit and Beyond: Rethinking the Futures of Europe (pp. 46–52). UCL Press.
De Spiegeleire, S., Skinner, C., Sweijs, T., Oliveira, M. M., Siebenga, R., Bekkers, F., Farnham, N., Novak, E., van Manen, B., Fersko, H., Vasconcellos, J., Faber, P., Jans, K., & Solodovnik, Y. (2017). Where Does PopSov Come from? In THE RISE OF POPULIST SOVEREIGNISM: What It Is, Where It Comes from, and What It Means for International Security and Defense (pp. 43–54). Hague Centre for Strategic Studies.
Diario El País. (15 de ocubre de 2016). Clinton y Trump apuestan por una economía más proteccionista. https://elpais.com/internacional/2016/10/15/estados_unidos/1476482585_281294.html
Diario El País. (29 de agosto de 2023). El Reino Unido retrasa por quinta vez los controles pos-Brexit de los alimentos procedentes de la UE. https://elpais.com/internacional/2023-08-29/el-reino-unido-retrasa-por-quinta-vez-los-controles-post-brexit-de-los-alimentos-procedentes-de-la-ue.html
East, M. (1978). National attributes and foreign policy. In M. East, S. Salmore & C. Hermann (Eds.), Why Nations Act: Theoretical Perspectives for Comparative Foreign Policy. Sage,
El Debate. (14 de agosto de 2023). Desencanto por el Brexit: los británicos se arrepienten y su economía sufre cada vez más. *El Debate*. https://www.eldebate.com/internacional/20230814/desencanto-brexit-britanicos-arrepienten-economia-sufre-cada-vez-mas_133859.html
Faith, D. (2008). War and Decision: Inside the Pentagon at the Dawn of the War on Terrorism. Harper Collins.
Fella, S., Miller, V., de Mars, S., & Curtis, J. (2018, August 28). The Brexit White Paper on future relations and alternative proposals (Briefing Paper No. 08387). https://researchbriefings.files.parliament.uk/documents/CBP-8387/CBP-8387.pdf
Fly, J., & Brattberg, E. (2018). Preserving space for cooperation in an era of transatlantic turbulence. german marshall fund of the united States. http://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep18863
Gandesha, S. (2018). Understanding Right and Left Populism. In J. Morelock (Ed.), Critical Theory and Authoritarian Populism (Vol. 9, pp. 49–70). University of Westminster Press.
Garrison, J. A. (2003). Foreign Policy Analysis in 20/20: A Symposium. International Studies Review, 5 (2), 155–202, https://doi.org/10.1111/1521-9488.5020011
Gellman, P. (1988). Hans J. Morgenthau and the Legacy of Political Realism. Review of International Studies, 14(4), 247–266. http://www.jstor.org/stable/20097151
Gotham, D., Barber, M. J., & Hill, A. M. (2020). How a US-UK trade agreement could affect NHS drug prices. BMJ, 369. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.m1332
Gourevitch, P. (1978). The second image reversed: The international sources of domestic politics. International Organization, 32, 881–912.
Hagan, J. (1993). Political Opposition and Foreign Policy in Comparative Perspective. Lynne Rienner.
Holsti, O. (1962). The belief system and national images: A case study. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 6(3), 244–52.
House of Commons International Trade Committee. (2022, October 18). UK trade negotiations: Parliamentary scrutiny of free trade agreements (Fourth Report of Session 2022–23). https://committees.parliament.uk/publications/30492/documents/175947/default/
Hudson, V. M. (2005). Foreign policy analysis: Actor-specific theory and the ground of international relations. Foreign Policy Analysis, 1(1), 30.
Hudson, V. M., & Vore, C. S. (1995). Foreign Policy Analysis Yesterday, Today, and Tomorrow. Mershon International Studies Review, 39(2), 209–238. https://doi.org/10.2307/222751
Huidrom, R., Mulas-Granados, C., Papi, L., & Stavrev, E. (2019, 3 de julio). Shocks arancelarios: El papel de las cadenas de valor en Europa. *International Monetary Fund [IMF]*. https://www.imf.org/es/Blogs/Articles/2019/07/03/blog-tariff-shocks-the-role-of-value-chains-in-europe
Jensen, L. (1982). Explaining Foreign Policy. Prentice Hall.
Jervis, R. (1968). Hypotheses on misperception. World Politics, 20(3), 454–79.
Johansson, V. (2014). The Security and Development Nexus: A Policy Analysis. Peace and Development Studies Tutor: Manuela Nilsson Fall 2014/2115 Course code: 2FU31E. https://www.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:784285/FULLTEXT01.pdf
Katzenstein, P. (1976). ‘International relations and domestic structures: Foreign economic policies of advanced industrial states’. International Organization, 30(1), 1–45.
Kersten, E. y Reinsch, W.A. (2023). The WTO Panel Report on Chinese Tariffs: Consequences of a Broken Appellate Body. *CSIS*. https://www.csis.org/analysis/wto-panel-report-chinese-tariffs-consequences-broken-appellate-body
Khosravinik, M. (2017). Right Wing Populism in the West: Social Media Discourse and Echo Chambers. Insight Turkey, 19(3), 53–68. http://www.jstor.org/stable/26300530
Local Government Association. (2021, September 7). Councils' role in supporting the exports industry. https://www.local.gov.uk/publications/councils-role-supporting-exports-industry
Malik, S. (2018). Post-Brexit Scenario: The European Union under Threat. Strategic Studies, 38(4), 90–109. https://www.jstor.org/stable/48544279
Marsh, K. (2014). Obama’s surge: A bureaucratic politics analysis of the decision to order a troop surge in the Afghanistan war. Foreign Policy Analysis, 10(3), 265–288.
Neack, L. (1995). Linking state type with foreign policy behaviour. In L. Neack, J. Hey & P. Haney (Eds.), Foreign Policy Analysis: Continuity and Change in Its Second Generation. Prentice Hall.
Negroponte, D. V. (2023, February 22). The Struggle to Achieve Global Britain. Wilson Center. https://www.wilsoncenter.org/article/struggle-achieve-global-britain
Niblett, R. (2016). Europe is now Britain’s essential relationship. The World Today, 72(6), 16–17. http://www.jstor.org/stable/45180766
Obstfeld, M. (8 de septiembre de 2016). Los aranceles causan más perjuicios que ventajas internamente. *International Monetary Fund (IMF)*. https://www.imf.org/es/Blogs/Articles/2016/09/08/tariffs-do-more-harm-than-good-at-home
Organización Mundial del Comercio. (2011). *World Trade Report 2011*. https://www.wto.org/english/res_e/booksp_e/anrep_e/wtr11-2a_e.pdf
O’Connor, N. (2017). Three Connections between Rising Economic Inequality and the Rise of Populism. Irish Studies in International Affairs, 28, 29–43. https://doi.org/10.3318/isia.2017.28.5
Plagemann, J., & Destradi, S. (2020). The Foreign Policy of Populists. Horizons: Journal of International Relations and Sustainable Development, 15, 110–119. https://www.jstor.org/stable/48573640
Requeijo, J. (1962). Ideas y creencias en la teoría del intercambio internacional: el teorema de Heckscher-Ohlin-Samuelson. *CEPC* https://www.cepc.gob.es/sites/default/files/2021-12/31886recp083181.pdf
Reuters. (2019, December 10). U.S. top trade official lauds USMCA as model for future trade deals. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-trade-usmca-lighthizer-idCAKBN1YE255
Risse-Kappen, T. (1991). Public opinion, domestic structure and foreign policy in liberal democracies. World Politics, 43, 491–517.
Rodrik, D. (9 de mayo de 2022). De las cenizas de la hiperglobalización podría surgir una mejor globalización. *Project Syndicate*. https://www.project-syndicate.org/commentary/after-hyperglobalization-national-interests-open-economy-by-dani-rodrik-2022-05/spanish?barrier=accesspaylog
Rosenau, J. (1967). Domestic Sources of Foreign Policy. Free Press.
Rowland, R. C. (2019). The Populist and Nationalist Roots of Trump’s Rhetoric. Rhetoric and Public Affairs, 22(3), 343–388. https://doi.org/10.14321/rhetpublaffa.22.3.0343
Rummel, R. (1995). Democracies are less warlike than other regimes. European Journal of International Relations, 1(4), 457–479.
Salmore, B., & Salmore, S. (1978). Political regimes and foreign policy. In M. East, S. Salmore & C. Hermann (Eds.), Why Nations Act: Theoretical Perspectives for Comparative Foreign Policy (pp. 103–122). Beverly Hills, CA.
Schilling, R. W., Hammond, P. Y., & Snyder, G. H. (1962). Strategy, Politics, and Defense Budgets. Columbia University, Institute of War and Peace Studies.
Snyder, R., Bruck, H., & Sapin, B. (1962). Foreign Policy Decision-Making: An Approach to the Study of International Politics. Macmillan.
Sprout, H., & Sprout, M. (1956). Man – Milieu Relationship Hypotheses in the Context of International Politics. Princeton University Press.
Starr, H. (1988). Rosenau, Pre-Theories and the evolution of the comparative study of the Foreign Policy. International Interactions, 14 (1), 3-15.
Stein, J. G. (2008)., ‘Foreign policy decision making: Rational, psychological and neurological models’, in Steven Smith, Amelia Hadfield and Timothy Dunne (eds.) Foreign Policy: Theories, Actors, Cases. Oxford University Press.
Stokke, K. (2012). Peace-building as Small State Foreign Policy: Norway’s Peace Engagement in a Changing International Context. International Studies, 49(3-4), 207-231. https://doi.org/10.1177/0020881714532334
The Observatory of Economic Complexity. (2023). Perfil bilateral: China - Estados Unidos. https://oec.world/es/profile/bilateral-country/chn/partner/usa
Vargas-Alzate, L. (2010). Debate entre política exterior y relaciones internacionales. Una reactivación del orden teórico. Revista Universidad EAFIT, 46(157), 75-90.
Welch, D. A. (1992). The organizational process and bureaucratic politics paradigms: Retrospect and prospect. International Security, 17 (2), 119–46.
Woodcock, A. (2021, September 20). Trade deal with UK is not a priority for Biden, Boris Johnson accepts. The Independent. https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/boris-johnson-joe-biden-trade-b1923660.html
Yukins, C. R., & Bowsher QC, M. (2016). Brexit and the Trump Election: Finding a Way Forward for Transnational Procurement. The Year That Changed Almost Everything. European Procurement & Public Private Partnership Law Review, 11(4), 258–262. https://www.jstor.org/stable/26643562
Akgemci, E. (2022). Authoritarian Populism as a Response to Crisis: The Case of Brazil. Uluslararası İlişkiler / International Relations, 19(74), 37–51. https://www.jstor.org/stable/27130875
Algan, Y., Guriev, S., Papaionnau, E., & Passari, E. (2017). The European Trust Crisis and the Rise of Populism. Brookings Papers on Economic Activity, 309–382. http://www.jstor.org/stable/90019460
Allison, G.T., & Halperin, M. H. (1972). Bureaucratic politics: A paradigm and some policy implications. World Politics, 24, 40–79.
Anton, M. (2017). America and the Liberal International Order. American Affairs. https://americanaffairsjournal.org/2017/02/america-liberal-international-order/
Art, R. J. (1973). Bureaucratic politics and American foreign policy: A critique. Policy Sciences, 4(4), 468–469.
Balbon, N. (2023). Building Peace, the Feminist Foreign Policy Way. Good Practices.
Banco Mundial. (2023). Vista general del país: Reino Unido. https://wits.worldbank.org/countrysnapshot/es/GBR/textview
BBC News Mundo (26 de marzo de 2023). Por qué la globalización está en la cuerda floja (y qué puede venir). https://www.bbc.com/mundo/noticias-64945852
BBC News Mundo. (27 de febrero de 2023). Reino Unido y la UE llegan a un acuerdo sobre la frontera de Irlanda del Norte: por qué era el "último gran obstáculo" para sellar el Brexit. https://www.bbc.com/mundo/noticias-internacional-64784523
Boulding, K. (1959). National images and international systems. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 3(2), 120–131.
Bremmer, I. (2018). The Winners of Trump’s Foreign Policy: Year One. Horizons: Journal of International Relations and Sustainable Development, 10, 96–103. https://www.jstor.org/stable/48573480
Burt, R. (2017). Trump and Europe. The National Interest, 147, 45–48. https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557363
Center for American Progress. (2023, October 1). President Biden’s Worker-Centered Trade Policy: A Conversation With Ambassador Katherine Tai. https://www.americanprogress.org/events/president-bidens-worker-centered-trade-policy-a-conversation-with-ambassador-katherine-tai/
Colantone, I., & Stanig, P. (2018). Global Competition and Brexit. American Political Science Review, 112(2), 201-218. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003055417000685
Corbett, S. (2016). The Social Consequences of Brexit for the UK and Europe: Euroscepticism, Populism, Nationalism, and Societal Division. The International Journal of Social Quality, 6(1), 11–31. http://www.jstor.org/stable/26179355
Cox, M. (2017). The Rise of Populism and the Crisis of Globalisation: Brexit, Trump and Beyond. Irish Studies in International Affairs, 28, 9–17. https://doi.org/10.3318/isia.2017.28.12
Crozier, M. (1964). The Bureaucratic Phenomenon. University of Chicago Press.
de Búrca, G. (2018). How British was the Brexit vote? In B. Martill & U. Staiger (Eds.), Brexit and Beyond: Rethinking the Futures of Europe (pp. 46–52). UCL Press.
De Spiegeleire, S., Skinner, C., Sweijs, T., Oliveira, M. M., Siebenga, R., Bekkers, F., Farnham, N., Novak, E., van Manen, B., Fersko, H., Vasconcellos, J., Faber, P., Jans, K., & Solodovnik, Y. (2017). Where Does PopSov Come from? In THE RISE OF POPULIST SOVEREIGNISM: What It Is, Where It Comes from, and What It Means for International Security and Defense (pp. 43–54). Hague Centre for Strategic Studies.
Diario El País. (15 de ocubre de 2016). Clinton y Trump apuestan por una economía más proteccionista. https://elpais.com/internacional/2016/10/15/estados_unidos/1476482585_281294.html
Diario El País. (29 de agosto de 2023). El Reino Unido retrasa por quinta vez los controles pos-Brexit de los alimentos procedentes de la UE. https://elpais.com/internacional/2023-08-29/el-reino-unido-retrasa-por-quinta-vez-los-controles-post-brexit-de-los-alimentos-procedentes-de-la-ue.html
East, M. (1978). National attributes and foreign policy. In M. East, S. Salmore & C. Hermann (Eds.), Why Nations Act: Theoretical Perspectives for Comparative Foreign Policy. Sage,
El Debate. (14 de agosto de 2023). Desencanto por el Brexit: los británicos se arrepienten y su economía sufre cada vez más. *El Debate*. https://www.eldebate.com/internacional/20230814/desencanto-brexit-britanicos-arrepienten-economia-sufre-cada-vez-mas_133859.html
Faith, D. (2008). War and Decision: Inside the Pentagon at the Dawn of the War on Terrorism. Harper Collins.
Fella, S., Miller, V., de Mars, S., & Curtis, J. (2018, August 28). The Brexit White Paper on future relations and alternative proposals (Briefing Paper No. 08387). https://researchbriefings.files.parliament.uk/documents/CBP-8387/CBP-8387.pdf
Fly, J., & Brattberg, E. (2018). Preserving space for cooperation in an era of transatlantic turbulence. german marshall fund of the united States. http://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep18863
Gandesha, S. (2018). Understanding Right and Left Populism. In J. Morelock (Ed.), Critical Theory and Authoritarian Populism (Vol. 9, pp. 49–70). University of Westminster Press.
Garrison, J. A. (2003). Foreign Policy Analysis in 20/20: A Symposium. International Studies Review, 5 (2), 155–202, https://doi.org/10.1111/1521-9488.5020011
Gellman, P. (1988). Hans J. Morgenthau and the Legacy of Political Realism. Review of International Studies, 14(4), 247–266. http://www.jstor.org/stable/20097151
Gotham, D., Barber, M. J., & Hill, A. M. (2020). How a US-UK trade agreement could affect NHS drug prices. BMJ, 369. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.m1332
Gourevitch, P. (1978). The second image reversed: The international sources of domestic politics. International Organization, 32, 881–912.
Hagan, J. (1993). Political Opposition and Foreign Policy in Comparative Perspective. Lynne Rienner.
Holsti, O. (1962). The belief system and national images: A case study. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 6(3), 244–52.
House of Commons International Trade Committee. (2022, October 18). UK trade negotiations: Parliamentary scrutiny of free trade agreements (Fourth Report of Session 2022–23). https://committees.parliament.uk/publications/30492/documents/175947/default/
Hudson, V. M. (2005). Foreign policy analysis: Actor-specific theory and the ground of international relations. Foreign Policy Analysis, 1(1), 30.
Hudson, V. M., & Vore, C. S. (1995). Foreign Policy Analysis Yesterday, Today, and Tomorrow. Mershon International Studies Review, 39(2), 209–238. https://doi.org/10.2307/222751
Huidrom, R., Mulas-Granados, C., Papi, L., & Stavrev, E. (2019, 3 de julio). Shocks arancelarios: El papel de las cadenas de valor en Europa. *International Monetary Fund [IMF]*. https://www.imf.org/es/Blogs/Articles/2019/07/03/blog-tariff-shocks-the-role-of-value-chains-in-europe
Jensen, L. (1982). Explaining Foreign Policy. Prentice Hall.
Jervis, R. (1968). Hypotheses on misperception. World Politics, 20(3), 454–79.
Johansson, V. (2014). The Security and Development Nexus: A Policy Analysis. Peace and Development Studies Tutor: Manuela Nilsson Fall 2014/2115 Course code: 2FU31E. https://www.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:784285/FULLTEXT01.pdf
Katzenstein, P. (1976). ‘International relations and domestic structures: Foreign economic policies of advanced industrial states’. International Organization, 30(1), 1–45.
Kersten, E. y Reinsch, W.A. (2023). The WTO Panel Report on Chinese Tariffs: Consequences of a Broken Appellate Body. *CSIS*. https://www.csis.org/analysis/wto-panel-report-chinese-tariffs-consequences-broken-appellate-body
Khosravinik, M. (2017). Right Wing Populism in the West: Social Media Discourse and Echo Chambers. Insight Turkey, 19(3), 53–68. http://www.jstor.org/stable/26300530
Local Government Association. (2021, September 7). Councils' role in supporting the exports industry. https://www.local.gov.uk/publications/councils-role-supporting-exports-industry
Malik, S. (2018). Post-Brexit Scenario: The European Union under Threat. Strategic Studies, 38(4), 90–109. https://www.jstor.org/stable/48544279
Marsh, K. (2014). Obama’s surge: A bureaucratic politics analysis of the decision to order a troop surge in the Afghanistan war. Foreign Policy Analysis, 10(3), 265–288.
Neack, L. (1995). Linking state type with foreign policy behaviour. In L. Neack, J. Hey & P. Haney (Eds.), Foreign Policy Analysis: Continuity and Change in Its Second Generation. Prentice Hall.
Negroponte, D. V. (2023, February 22). The Struggle to Achieve Global Britain. Wilson Center. https://www.wilsoncenter.org/article/struggle-achieve-global-britain
Niblett, R. (2016). Europe is now Britain’s essential relationship. The World Today, 72(6), 16–17. http://www.jstor.org/stable/45180766
Obstfeld, M. (8 de septiembre de 2016). Los aranceles causan más perjuicios que ventajas internamente. *International Monetary Fund (IMF)*. https://www.imf.org/es/Blogs/Articles/2016/09/08/tariffs-do-more-harm-than-good-at-home
Organización Mundial del Comercio. (2011). *World Trade Report 2011*. https://www.wto.org/english/res_e/booksp_e/anrep_e/wtr11-2a_e.pdf
O’Connor, N. (2017). Three Connections between Rising Economic Inequality and the Rise of Populism. Irish Studies in International Affairs, 28, 29–43. https://doi.org/10.3318/isia.2017.28.5
Plagemann, J., & Destradi, S. (2020). The Foreign Policy of Populists. Horizons: Journal of International Relations and Sustainable Development, 15, 110–119. https://www.jstor.org/stable/48573640
Requeijo, J. (1962). Ideas y creencias en la teoría del intercambio internacional: el teorema de Heckscher-Ohlin-Samuelson. *CEPC* https://www.cepc.gob.es/sites/default/files/2021-12/31886recp083181.pdf
Reuters. (2019, December 10). U.S. top trade official lauds USMCA as model for future trade deals. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-trade-usmca-lighthizer-idCAKBN1YE255
Risse-Kappen, T. (1991). Public opinion, domestic structure and foreign policy in liberal democracies. World Politics, 43, 491–517.
Rodrik, D. (9 de mayo de 2022). De las cenizas de la hiperglobalización podría surgir una mejor globalización. *Project Syndicate*. https://www.project-syndicate.org/commentary/after-hyperglobalization-national-interests-open-economy-by-dani-rodrik-2022-05/spanish?barrier=accesspaylog
Rosenau, J. (1967). Domestic Sources of Foreign Policy. Free Press.
Rowland, R. C. (2019). The Populist and Nationalist Roots of Trump’s Rhetoric. Rhetoric and Public Affairs, 22(3), 343–388. https://doi.org/10.14321/rhetpublaffa.22.3.0343
Rummel, R. (1995). Democracies are less warlike than other regimes. European Journal of International Relations, 1(4), 457–479.
Salmore, B., & Salmore, S. (1978). Political regimes and foreign policy. In M. East, S. Salmore & C. Hermann (Eds.), Why Nations Act: Theoretical Perspectives for Comparative Foreign Policy (pp. 103–122). Beverly Hills, CA.
Schilling, R. W., Hammond, P. Y., & Snyder, G. H. (1962). Strategy, Politics, and Defense Budgets. Columbia University, Institute of War and Peace Studies.
Snyder, R., Bruck, H., & Sapin, B. (1962). Foreign Policy Decision-Making: An Approach to the Study of International Politics. Macmillan.
Sprout, H., & Sprout, M. (1956). Man – Milieu Relationship Hypotheses in the Context of International Politics. Princeton University Press.
Starr, H. (1988). Rosenau, Pre-Theories and the evolution of the comparative study of the Foreign Policy. International Interactions, 14 (1), 3-15.
Stein, J. G. (2008)., ‘Foreign policy decision making: Rational, psychological and neurological models’, in Steven Smith, Amelia Hadfield and Timothy Dunne (eds.) Foreign Policy: Theories, Actors, Cases. Oxford University Press.
Stokke, K. (2012). Peace-building as Small State Foreign Policy: Norway’s Peace Engagement in a Changing International Context. International Studies, 49(3-4), 207-231. https://doi.org/10.1177/0020881714532334
The Observatory of Economic Complexity. (2023). Perfil bilateral: China - Estados Unidos. https://oec.world/es/profile/bilateral-country/chn/partner/usa
Vargas-Alzate, L. (2010). Debate entre política exterior y relaciones internacionales. Una reactivación del orden teórico. Revista Universidad EAFIT, 46(157), 75-90.
Welch, D. A. (1992). The organizational process and bureaucratic politics paradigms: Retrospect and prospect. International Security, 17 (2), 119–46.
Woodcock, A. (2021, September 20). Trade deal with UK is not a priority for Biden, Boris Johnson accepts. The Independent. https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/boris-johnson-joe-biden-trade-b1923660.html
Yukins, C. R., & Bowsher QC, M. (2016). Brexit and the Trump Election: Finding a Way Forward for Transnational Procurement. The Year That Changed Almost Everything. European Procurement & Public Private Partnership Law Review, 11(4), 258–262. https://www.jstor.org/stable/26643562
Publicado
2024-02-25
Cómo citar
Medina Rivas Plata, A. (2024). Proteccionismo comercial como respuesta a la crisis de la globalización en Occidente: Trump y el Brexit. Ius Humani. Revista De Derecho, 13(1), 68-94. https://doi.org/10.31207/ih.v13i1.345
Sección
Artículos
Esta obra está bajo licencia internacional Creative Commons Reconocimiento 4.0.
Los autores que publican en esta revista están de acuerdo con los siguientes términos:
1. Los autores conservan siempre los derechos de autor. A la vez, garantizan a la revista el derecho de ser la primera en publicar su trabajo bajo una licencia Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 que permite a otros compartir el trabajo con un reconocimiento de la autoría del trabajo y del hecho que se ha publicado en esta revista.
2. Los autores saben y aceptan que el equipo de Ius Humani procurará darle a sus contribuciones la mayor difusión posible. Ello implica distribuir sus contenidos en la versión periódica impresa, en el sitio electrónico de la Revista, en diversas bases de datos y en índices científicos.
3. Los autores pueden establecer por separado acuerdos adicionales para la distribución no exclusiva de la versión de la obra publicada en la revista (por ejemplo, situarla en un repositorio institucional o publicarla en un libro), con un reconocimiento de su publicación inicial en esta revista.
4. Se permite y se anima a los autores a difundir sus trabajos electrónicamente (por ejemplo, en repositorios institucionales o en su propio sitio web) antes y durante el proceso de envío, ya que puede dar lugar a intercambios productivos, así como a una citación más temprana y mayor de los trabajos publicados (Véase The Effect of Open Access) (en inglés).
